Nuremberg Trials Essays (782 words) - International Criminal Law

Nuremberg Trials After World War II, numerous war-crimes trials tried and convicted many Axis leaders. Judges from Great Britain, France, the Soviet Union, and the United States tried twenty-two Nazi leaders for: crimes against humanity (mostly about the Holocaust), violating long-established rules of war, and waging aggressive war. This was known as the "Nuremberg Trials." Late in 1946, the German defendants were indicted and arraigned before a war crimes tribunal at Nuremberg. Twenty of the defendants were physicians who, as governmental, military, or SS officials, stood at or near the top of the medical hierarchy of the Third Reich. The other three occupied administrative positions which brought them into close connection with medical affairs. It all started when people started hearing about the Nazi's in human acts, just about four months after World War II started. No one would believe that such a thing would happen. While the people were thinking like that the Jews were being shipped out of the country. Some of them were put in working camps or at a person's farm. This was the beginning of the Final Solution of the German's Problem (the Holocaust). On August 8 the Four Power nation signed the London Agreement. They later named it the International Military Tribunal (IMT), it had 8 judges, one judge and one alternate. This was made so that they would try to stop the Nazi crimes (Rice Jr. 81). They had supplementary Nuremberg hearings that were broken down into twelve trials. In connection with these trials, the U.S. military tribunals had thirty-five defendants and released nineteen of them because they could find anything to get them on (Rice Jr. 76). They made Nuremberg Laws because of Hitler's concentration camps and his other inhuman acts (Rice Jr. 31). He didn't go by the lead system, he made himself the Supreme Judge. Hitler could imprison or execute anyone he wanted to. He made laws keeping Jews out of certain public places or jobs. He wouldn't let Jews have German citizenship. The Nuremberg Laws stated that there would be no more inhuman acts or segregation of Jews. One of the positive sides of the Nuremberg incident was the trials documented Nazi crimes for posterity. Many citizens of the world remember hearing about the Nazi's brutalities and inhuman acts (Rice Jr., 5). Hundreds of official Nazi documents entered into evidence at Nuremberg tell the horrible tale of the Third Reich in the Nazi's own words. Six million Jews, and others not liked by the Nazis were killed. Not one convicted Nazi denied that the mass killing had occurred. Each disclaimed only personal knowledge and responsibility. The negative things that happened at Nuremberg were the establishment of the I.M.T. has yet to lead to a permanent counterpart before which crimes against humanity can be tried. Twenty-four wars between nations and ninety-three civil wars or insurgencies between 1945 and 1992, no international body had been convened to try aggressor nations or individuals accused of war crimes. To prosecute and punish aggression rest still on the wavering will of an international community ever reluctant to impose sanctions on offending governments (Rice Jr. 100). Despite the reluctance of nations to unite in common cause and move swiftly toward a lasting road to aggression, hope yes abides for the best of Nuremberg's brightest promise. The world had a problem of what to do about the Nazi regime that had presided over the extermination of some six million Jews and deaths of millions of others with no basis in military necessity. Never before in history had the victors tried the vanquished for crimes committed during a war (Rice Jr., 97). Yet never in history had the vanquished perpetrated crimes of such inhumanity. The I.M.T., like the courts in many countries, have held to the principle that persons committing a criminal violation of international law are responsible for violation, on the grounds that crimes of this nature are the result of their own acts (Rice 1492). The tribunal thought for crimes carried out on orders from above, since many of the crimes had been committed in one with the Reich policy (Rice 1493). The portion of the I.M.T. judgment dealing with war crimes and crimes against humanity committed by the defendants in the trial and by the criminal organizations concerns, in large measure, the persecution and murder of the Jewish people. In its analysis of these crimes, the I.M.T. found it appropriate to single out the persecution of the Jews as a manifestation of consistent and systematic in humanity on a huge scale (Rice 1493). The testimony

Research Paper Introduction on Abortion

Research Paper Introduction on Abortion The attitude towards abortion has always been and still is very controversial. It has, however, changed throughout the history of humanity: for example, it was commonly accepted in the times of Ancient Greece and Rome. On the other hand, he majority of men were against abortion as they felt they were entitled to have a baby. There are a few references to abortion in an Old Testament, where a fetus was perceived rather than an object, not a living being. In other words, there was a law, that if a person causes a miscarriage, he must be punished for that. There are no references to this topic in the New Testament. Later on, abortion in the western world was not considered a crime if done before a certain period, usually before 18-20 weeks. It was a common practice in the colonial America, but was usually kept in secret, as sexual activity before marriage was disapproved by the society. The Abortion Act of 1967 in England fully legalized abortion, but under certain conditions. It states that a doctor has the right to perform an abortion if other two doctors agree that this is done for the sake of the woman. For example, doctors are sure that giving birth to a child will cause physical or mental harm to a woman. Still, there are lots of debates concerning whether abortion should be legalized or not. The cons of abortion usually include the following facts: Abortion is a crime. Even if it is a fetus, it is still a process of killing someone who deserves to live. Abortion can often lead to serious complications, injury to the uterus or cervix if done by unskilled doctor, or serious infection. Some of the factors, including the above mentioned complications, can lead to a risk of not being able to become pregnant again. It is a stressful and unpleasant experience, and a person can feel depressed and guilty for the rest of the life. On the other hand, there are facts that prove that abortion is legal and should be done in certain cases: Only a woman who is pregnant has a right to decide whether to do abortion or to keep a baby, provided she is of sound mind. Neither doctors, nor anti-abortion activists will have to take care of a baby, but it is a woman who has to decide whether she is capable and ready for that. The current stage of the medicine development enables doctors to detect any possible problems that a woman can have while giving a birth to a child. So, if doctors are sure that giving a birth to a child can be dangerous for a woman, they may convince her to make an abortion. The similar situation is with a baby. If doctors diagnose that a baby is very likely to have a disease after birth, a woman has to decide whether to make an abortion or to give a birth to a child, who can later on suffer for the rest of its life. If a woman got pregnant after a rape, then having an abortion is a way to get rid both of an unwanted baby and the psychological trauma after such a dire experience. There will probably never be a clear answer to whether abortion should be legal or not, whether it is morally right, or if it is the biggest crime a person can commit. Anyway, people have to deal with someone elses life, one of the most valuable things a person can have, so it is necessary to think carefully and consider every detail. Tips on Writing a Research Paper Introduction on a Controversial Topic: To write a good introduction, you have to provide the readers with clues to what the paper is going to be about. Stay close to the point and keep the introduction short. As your topic is controversial, make it clear what position you take on the matter. Make sure that you conclusion and introduction coincide. Re-read the introduction and conclusion and compare them.

How Business ethical problem effect economy Essay

How Business ethical problem effect economy - Essay Example Sweatshops are mainly concentrated around regions like South Asia, Southeast Asia, Latin America, and so on. Most employees of sweatshops are denied sufficient salaries and are, in most cases, bound to the messy quarters that are cramped with machines and other equipments. These quarters also serve as homes for these workers where they sleep and eat. Because of their poor conditions, sweatshops impinge on the fundamental liberties of labors and are a serious violation of human rights which is why they present an ethical issue. They provide convenient and cheap sources of labor for high-end clothing and apparel manufacturers, which is why they continue to exist in the present century although strict laws regarding labor exist. After Nike, Zara has also been caught in a commotion regarding sweatshops where it had to pay a fine for operating sweatshops in Brazil (Sum of Us, n.pag.). However, the fine does not seem to have inhibited the capitalistic endeavors of Zara. The sweatshop issue is not a new one and their existence can be traced back to the early 20th century when women and children were the most common forced laborers (Rosen, 1). The Universal Declaration of Human Rights developed by the United Nations clearly mentions the rights of workers to healthy working environments. Thus, in the light of the UDHR, companies must pursue a policy of good practices providing a workable environment with appropriate wage rates and stipulated working hours. With bonded labor, various sweatshop workers are forced to work in bad environments which include long working hours and no breaks in between. To top this, workers are paid very little money to live on and mostly live in the same quarter they work in. So sweatshops characterize poor working places with overworked and underpaid labors. So, the companies are able to acquire very cheap labor out of sweatshops. The main ethical concern regarding sweatshops is

McKenzie Corporations Capital Budgeting Assignment

McKenzie Corporations Capital Budgeting - Assignment Example It is of immense importance that one gets the knowledge on the market as well as comprehends the nature of the economy. Based on the calculated values the stockholders are better off with an expansion in the company. This is because the value is higher by $9 million that implies that the firm's value, as well as the profits, would increase. Question 2 Debt of Company - $34 million Expected value of debt without the expansion = 0.30*34 + 0.50*34 + 0.20*34 = $34 million. The expansion is fully financed by equity this implies that the debt does not change. Therefore, the value of expected debt will remain the same with no changes. Question 3 Expected value of the company without expansion =E (value of company) =P (Low)*V (Low) +P (Normal)*V (Normal) + P (High)*V (High) =0.3*30 +0.5*35 + 0.2*51 = $36.7 million Expected value of the company with expansion =E (value of company) =P (Low)*V (Low) + P (Normal)*V (Normal) +P (High)*V (High) - Cost of financing = .30*33 + .50*46 + .20*64 -8.4 = $ 37.3 million The value of debt remains the same this implies that the additional value would be for the stockholders. The value expected for the stockholders = 0.6 million while the expected value for the bondholders =0. Change in the expected net Value due to the expansion =37.3 - 36.7= 0.6 million Question 4 An expansion of the company there will lead to a decrease in debt to equity ratio as well as long-term risk of the company. This is because the equity of the company will rise. The bond value, as well as the price of bonds for the company, will increase. This will also be accompanied by an increase in the profits to both stockholders as well as bondholders of the company (Ross, 390). Without an expansion, the value of bonds in the company will not change. The status of the bondholders remains unchanged, as well. The value of the debt remains as $34 million. Question 5 Without expansion, the equity of the company remains the same in the next year as in the current year. This is since additional capital will not be necessary if there is no expansion. Debt is, therefore, not of the essence in both the present and the future the company as it will not be able to borrow (Ross, 390). This will be in the case where the company continues to decrease their current debt. The company will not have greater equity in the next year once the debt covenants are over. This implies that the company will not access the financing it needs to expand. If the company expands, it will not be able to raise the debt. This is because they are prohibited from issuing any additional borrowing. They would then need to do the expansion by means of equity

Innovation and Sustainability Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 2

Innovation and Sustainability - Essay Example This activity involves cutting, burning and bulldozing trees down to clear land or gain access to more land. It harms the earth when the carbon monoxide seeps into the soil and floats off into the atmosphere. The consumption point of this process is having land cleared to build an industry or commercial business. It allows humans to produce products and consume currency. Industrialization is also a major human production habit. It involves processing of raw material, could be natural resources from the earth, into finished products. Agriculture supports industrialization in the food sector and food systems sustenance (Likens, Driscoll & Buso 1996, p.120). This particular production habit has been greatly influenced by the technological changes and the scarce resources. These two factors have resulted to a lot of innovation and high utilization of the available resource. Consumption is the direct utilization of material resources. Transportation is one way that humans consume. The number of vehicles has increased gradually and the fuel we use to run them is very harmful to the atmosphere. In this way we consume the efficiency of mobility by producing vehicles to ferry us to our destinations. In the larger picture production is also a part of consumption especially in transportation since in the process of production materials have to be moved from one site to another. The concept of sustainable consumption and production is comprehensive and takes a holistic approach to the systems of production and consumption. Humans have to seek ways to ultimately reverse or reduce the negative social and ecological impacts. This calls for a means of aligning economic systems to meet the needs of current and future generations within the ecological carrying capacity of the Earth. Policy instruments and tools that affect change and shift in production and consumption patterns are efforts that need to be considered in sustenance of the global population.

Iodine Clock Reaction: Kinetic Study

Iodine Clock Reaction: Kinetic Study The order of reaction with respect to I ˆ° was determined to be 1 and the order of reaction for ˆ° was determined to be 1. This was determined through the Method of Initial Rates. The elapsed time it took for the reaction to occur was recorded as were the concentrations of the reactants. This helped us derive the order of each reactant which helped us find the overall order which was 2. This helped us derive the specific rate constant, k, which was 1.93 x. Introduction: The rate of reaction is a positive quantity that expresses how the concentration of a reactant or product changes with time. As the reactant(s) decrease the product increases/is formed as demonstrated in the chemical reaction A+B à ¯Ã†â€™Ã‚   C. Δ[Reactants] Δ[Products]>0 The rate of reaction, also known as rate expression, can be in the form of R=k[A] à Ã‚ « [B]à ¢Ã‚ Ã‚ ¿ [1] The rate equation is expressed as a mathematical relationship describing the dependence of reaction rate upon the concentration of the reactants. The higher the concentration of starting materials (reactants), the more rapidly a reaction would take place. The lower the concentration of starting materials, the slower a reaction would take place, therefore proving that the reaction rate depends upon the concentration of the reactants. R in equation [1] represents the rate of the reaction in terms of the increase in concentration of products divided by the time it took for the change to occur. k,unlike R, is independent of any other quantities and remains the same. It is known as the rate constant. The bracketed unit represents the concentrations of the reactants, A and B. The exponent in front of the brackets represents the sum of the concentration pertaining to [A] à Ã‚ « and [B]à ¢Ã‚ Ã‚ ¿ and is defined as the order of the reaction. The order of the reaction is determined only through means of experimentation. The overall sum of all the exponents is known as the total order. The order of a reaction provides the amount of steps it takes a reactant to form a product. The slowest step in the process is called the rate controlling step and it has a molecularity that must equal the overall reaction. For example if the rate controlling step is one, the overall reaction is first order; if it were three, the overall reaction will be third order. Thus it can provide the amount of molecules colliding and how the reaction will carry out. The rate of the reaction can also be influenced, as is in this case, by other factors such as temperature, a catalyst, and an enzyme. Concentration is not the only factor that influences the rate of reaction. In this experiment the rate, k, and the order of the reactions were determined by the Method of Initial Rates and will be influenced by a starch (catalyst). In this method, the rates are going to be recorded for a number of reactions with a different concentration but will hold the constant. The reaction that is being observed is that between the persulfate ion, ˆ°, and iodide ion, Iˆ° being measured in Δt seconds as reaction occurs. Generalized rate expression: R = k[Iˆ°] à Ã‚ « [ˆ°]à ¢Ã‚ Ã‚ ¿ [2] Experimental Methods: Pipet Graduated Cylinder Small Test Tube I ˆ° Solution KCl solution (N)2ˆ° Solution Na2 Starch Solution Beaker Ice Water Bath Thermometer KI Solution Chemicals: Chemical Formula Molar Weight Ammonium Persulfate (N)2ˆ° 228.18g/mol Iodine I ˆ° 126.904g/mol Potassium Iodide KI 166.002 g/mol Sodium Thiosulfate Na2 158.108 g/mol Potassium Chloride KCl 74.551 g/mol Ammonium Sulfate (N)2 132.14 g/mol Procedures: Part A. Dependence of Reaction Rate on Concentration: 7 to 8mL of KI, (N)2ˆ°, and Na2s were measured. 7 to 8mL of KCl and (N)2solutions were measured with a graduated cylinder. Look at Table 1. Reactant The specified volume(s) of KI (and KCl) solutions were pipeted into a small test tube which was used as the reaction container. 1.00mL of 0.005 M Na2was pipeted into the small tube and 2 drops of starch solution were added. A thermometer was then inserted into the reaction container. The specified volumes of (N)2ˆ° and (N)2were then pipeted into a separate test tube. Persulfate solution was then poured from the test tube into the reaction tube. The solution was then swirled as to mix thoroughly. The time at which the solutions were mixed and the time required to turn the solution blue were recorded. Observed time. After solution appeared the temperature was recorded The tubes were rinsed thoroughly between experiments and each experiment was reproduced. Part B. Dependence of Reaction Rate on Temperature: Reaction (3) was carried out at the temperatures specified in Table 2. The same concentration as in Experiment 2 of table 1 was used. Table 2. Iodine Clock Reaction and Temperature Experiment Temperature,  °C 2 Room temperature 4 10 ° above Room Temperature 5 10 ° below Room Temperature 6 About 0 ° or 20 ° below Room Temp. Instead of mixing at room temperature, the two test tubes were placed in a beaker of water heated with a water bath to the desired temperature. A thermometer was then placed in the reaction tube. After several minutes at the specified temperature, the two solutions were mixed by pouring the solution from the persulfate test tube into the reaction tube, which was kept in the water bath. Swirl the tubes. The times of mixing and when the color change occurs and the temperature at the time of color change was recorded. The experiment may be repeated if time permits. Disposal: All solutions of reactions product are classified as non-hazardous and were flushed down the sink with running water. Unused reactant may be disposed in waste container. Observations The time it took for the solutions to change colors varied according to the rate law equation. As the temperature was raised, the reaction occurred quicker. As the temperature was cooler, the reaction took longer. Discussion: Throughout this experiment we were trying to find the order of reaction pertaining to [I ˆ°] and [ˆ°]. This experiment also illustrated the many ways that the rate of reaction can be influenced. As the temperature was raised we saw the solution being changed at a quicker rate. As it was cool it took longer. This experiment also affirmed what was said of the rate of reaction being directly proportional to the concentration; the higher the concentration, the quicker the reaction. Sources of Error: There were several possible sources of error. When the group started attaining the specified volumes of the solutions we had misread the instructions several times and may have gotten the wrong amounts. We eventually got the amounts right, but there might have been residue from the other concentrations that were in there before. Another possible source of error could have been the amount of ice that was in the container. Even though it was possibly just a very small amount of extra nice that wasnt needed, that could have influenced the time the reaction occurred. Conclusion: The order of the reactions pertaining to [I ˆ°] and [ˆ°] were obtained. The order of reaction pertaining to pertaining to [I ˆ°] was 1 and the order of reaction pertaining to [ˆ°] was also 1. The overall reaction order was 2. This helped us find the specific rate constant, k, which was 1.93 x .

Human Euthanization Essay example -- Euthanasia Essays

Euthanasia should be legalized for terminally ill individuals on a voluntary basis to reduce medical costs, prevent prolonged physical pain and unnecessary suffering, and to preserve the dignity of the dying person. Terminally ill patients often accumulate massive amounts of medical expenses. In addition to costs, terminally ill patients are subject to excruciating pain and discomfort due to the disease and/or treatments involved, given only to prolong the inevitable. When a person is dying, he or she may have very little or no say in what goes on in one’s own home, finances, or other aspects of that person’s life, but one reserves the right to die with dignity intact. Euthanasia comes from Greek prefix â€Å"eu† meaning good or easy, and suffix â€Å"thanatos† meaning death (123helpme.com). In ancient Greece, suicides and assisted suicides were practiced regularly. In some situations, it was considered honorable to commit suicide or have a family member assist in one’s death (Walker). On the other hand, Socrates was sentenced to suicide as punishment for â€Å"corrupting the city’s youth with his teachings† (Yount). As time went on, suicide and assisted suicide became decreasingly accepted in society. As Christianity was introduced into Western civilization, a value was placed on the human life that was not there before. It was said that only God had the right to take the gift of life away from individuals. By the 19th century, most countries had laws against suicide, punishing the family by taking property, livestock, etc. However, those laws were lifted because they were found insensitive to the grieving famili es. Today in the United States, there are no laws against committing suicide or attempting suicide, however assisted suicide and eut... ...rable illness wishes to hasten death, the clinician should be obligated to assist the patient in carrying out those wishes, by prescribing medication or withholding life prolonging treatments. If laws were made to allow euthanasia and assisted suicide, this would have a positive effect on the economy, the public, and the emotional and financial condition of dying patients and their families. Works Sited Williams, Mary. Terminal Illness. 1st. San Diego, CA: Greenhaven Press, 2001. Print. Yount, Lisa. Euthanasia. 1st. San Diego, CA: Greenhaven Press, 2002. Print. Yount, Lisa. Right to Die and Euthanasia. Revised. New York, NY: Facts on File, Inc., 2007. Print. WWW.procon.org/euthanasia/historical-timeline WWW.usatoday.com Walker, Richard. The Right to Die?. 1st. North Mankato, MN: Sea to Sea Publishing, 2006. Print WWW.123helpme.com Human Euthanization Essay example -- Euthanasia Essays Euthanasia should be legalized for terminally ill individuals on a voluntary basis to reduce medical costs, prevent prolonged physical pain and unnecessary suffering, and to preserve the dignity of the dying person. Terminally ill patients often accumulate massive amounts of medical expenses. In addition to costs, terminally ill patients are subject to excruciating pain and discomfort due to the disease and/or treatments involved, given only to prolong the inevitable. When a person is dying, he or she may have very little or no say in what goes on in one’s own home, finances, or other aspects of that person’s life, but one reserves the right to die with dignity intact. Euthanasia comes from Greek prefix â€Å"eu† meaning good or easy, and suffix â€Å"thanatos† meaning death (123helpme.com). In ancient Greece, suicides and assisted suicides were practiced regularly. In some situations, it was considered honorable to commit suicide or have a family member assist in one’s death (Walker). On the other hand, Socrates was sentenced to suicide as punishment for â€Å"corrupting the city’s youth with his teachings† (Yount). As time went on, suicide and assisted suicide became decreasingly accepted in society. As Christianity was introduced into Western civilization, a value was placed on the human life that was not there before. It was said that only God had the right to take the gift of life away from individuals. By the 19th century, most countries had laws against suicide, punishing the family by taking property, livestock, etc. However, those laws were lifted because they were found insensitive to the grieving famili es. Today in the United States, there are no laws against committing suicide or attempting suicide, however assisted suicide and eut... ...rable illness wishes to hasten death, the clinician should be obligated to assist the patient in carrying out those wishes, by prescribing medication or withholding life prolonging treatments. If laws were made to allow euthanasia and assisted suicide, this would have a positive effect on the economy, the public, and the emotional and financial condition of dying patients and their families. Works Sited Williams, Mary. Terminal Illness. 1st. San Diego, CA: Greenhaven Press, 2001. Print. Yount, Lisa. Euthanasia. 1st. San Diego, CA: Greenhaven Press, 2002. Print. Yount, Lisa. Right to Die and Euthanasia. Revised. New York, NY: Facts on File, Inc., 2007. Print. WWW.procon.org/euthanasia/historical-timeline WWW.usatoday.com Walker, Richard. The Right to Die?. 1st. North Mankato, MN: Sea to Sea Publishing, 2006. Print WWW.123helpme.com